{"total":299,"count":299,"limit":20,"offset":0,"entities":[{"id":674,"entity_type":"kingdom","year_start":700,"year_end":1731,"name_original":"Theloal","name_original_lang":"ncz","name_variants":[{"name":"Natchez","lang":"en","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"English designation from French adaptation","source":null},{"name":"Theloal","lang":"ncz","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Possible Natchez self-designation (reconstructed)","source":null},{"name":"Natchez / Naktche","lang":"fr","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"French colonial designation","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Grand Village of the Natchez","lat":31.56,"lon":-91.39},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[-90.337140137,31.542399772],[-90.362296904,31.366985105],[-90.426672949,31.199110707],[-90.527626698,31.045162829],[-90.661179457,30.910972823],[-90.82218104,30.801605982],[-91.004508461,30.721180178],[-91.201290564,30.672719482],[-91.405151855,30.658046937],[-91.608469099,30.677719617],[-91.803634384,30.731007965],[-91.983318374,30.815920197],[-92.140727356,30.929271245],[-92.269847511,31.066794454],[-92.365669488,31.223292971],[-92.424386036,31.392826586],[-92.443554965,31.568928615],[-92.422219436,31.744846266],[-92.360977564,31.913796735],[-92.261993918,32.069230111],[-92.128947023,32.205089029],[-91.966909574,32.316054165],[-91.782161815,32.397764241],[-91.581943234,32.446999507],[-91.374152736,32.461818854],[-91.167012221,32.441642817],[-90.9687121,32.387277664],[-90.787059105,32.300879272],[-90.62914647,32.185859107],[-90.501064216,32.046737976],[-90.407663238,31.888955921],[-90.352382071,31.7186484],[-90.337140137,31.542399772]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.5,"status":"uncertain","territory_changes":[{"year":700,"region":"Lower Mississippi River (Natchez Bluffs)","change_type":"expansion","description":"The Natchez chiefdom consolidated along the bluffs of the lower Mississippi River near modern Natchez, Mississippi. They are considered descendants of the broader Mississippian cultural tradition, with monumental mound construction (Emerald Mound, Fatherland Mound) continuing into the contact period.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.45},{"year":1716,"region":"Natchez Bluffs","change_type":"colonization","description":"French establishment of Fort Rosalie on Natchez territory, initiating direct colonial encroachment on Natchez lands. Growing French demands for land, particularly for tobacco plantations, created escalating tensions with the Natchez people.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.75},{"year":1731,"region":"Lower Mississippi","change_type":"dissolution","description":"French punitive expedition destroyed the Natchez nation following the 1729 Natchez Revolt (in which the Natchez killed approximately 230 French colonists at Fort Rosalie). Approximately 400-500 Natchez were captured and sold into slavery in Saint-Domingue. Survivors scattered among the Chickasaw, Cherokee, and Creek nations.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.7}],"sources":[{"citation":"Le Page du Pratz, Antoine-Simon. Histoire de la Louisiane. Paris, 1758","url":null,"source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"Barnett, James F. The Natchez Indians: A History to 1735. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007","url":null,"source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"The Natchez are notable for their complex chiefdom with a hereditary 'Great Sun' ruler and rigid social hierarchy, unique among North American indigenous societies. French colonists documented Natchez society in detail but also systematically destroyed it. The Natchez Revolt of 1729 against French colonial exploitation was brutally suppressed, and survivors were sold into slavery in Saint-Domingue (Haiti). The near-total destruction of the Natchez people represents one of the lesser-known genocidal episodes in colonial North American history. Surviving Natchez descendants are enrolled primarily with the Cherokee and Muscogee (Creek) nations.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier3/theloal-fix] Replaced erroneous \"Eastern North American hunter-gatherers\" polygon (376 deg²) with 100km circle. Theloal/Natchez chiefdom (700-1729 CE) was a Mississippian-derived hierarchical society on the lower Mississippi River; capital Grand Village near modern Natchez MS; destroyed by French 1729-31.","continent":"Americas","wikidata_qid":"Q3111838","capital_history":[]},{"id":418,"entity_type":"city-state","year_start":800,"year_end":1505,"name_original":"Miji ya Pwani","name_original_lang":"sw","name_variants":[{"name":"Swahili coast city-states","lang":"en","period_start":800,"period_end":1505,"context":"English academic designation for the collectively recognized urban polities","source":"Horton, Mark and John Middleton. The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society (2000)"},{"name":"Cites-Etats Swahili","lang":"fr","period_start":800,"period_end":1505,"context":"French designation","source":"Chittick, Neville. Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast (1974)"},{"name":"مدن الساحل السواحيلي","lang":"ar","period_start":800,"period_end":1505,"context":"Arabic designation; Arab geographers (Al-Masudi, Ibn Battuta) provided key descriptions of these cities","source":"Al-Masudi. Muruj al-Dhahab (947 CE)"}],"capital":{"name":"Kilwa Kisiwani","lat":-8.9572,"lon":39.5233},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[39.0,-1.5],[42.0,-1.5],[44.0,-12.0],[40.0,-15.5],[38.5,-7.0],[39.0,-1.5]]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_approximation","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.5,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1331,"region":"Kilwa","change_type":"CULTURAL_EXCHANGE","description":"Ibn Battuta visited Kilwa and described it as one of the most beautiful cities in the world. This period represents the peak of Swahili city-state prosperity, based on gold trade from Great Zimbabwe via Sofala, ivory, and other commodities.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.7},{"year":1505,"region":"Kilwa and Mombasa","change_type":"CONQUEST_MILITARY","description":"Portuguese forces under Francisco de Almeida sacked Kilwa and Mombasa. The destruction of Kilwa marked the beginning of Portuguese disruption of Indian Ocean trade. Churches were built on mosque ruins. Existing trade networks were destroyed to benefit Portuguese commercial monopoly.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.75}],"sources":[{"citation":"Horton, Mark and John Middleton. The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Chittick, Neville. Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast. 2 vols. Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1974","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Ibn Battuta. Rihla (Travels). c.1355. Description of East African coast from 1331 visit","url":null,"source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"Al-Masudi. Muruj al-Dhahab wa-Ma'adin al-Jawhar (Meadows of Gold). 947 CE","url":null,"source_type":"primary"}],"ethical_notes":"The Swahili coast city-states (Kilwa, Mombasa, Lamu, Pate, Sofala, Zanzibar, Malindi, and others) represent a major African maritime civilization that participated fully in Indian Ocean trade networks. Colonial-era scholarship repeatedly denied the African character of Swahili civilization, attributing it to Arab or Persian colonists. Modern archaeology and linguistics have definitively established that Swahili civilization was fundamentally African (Bantu-speaking), with influences from Indian Ocean trade contacts. The 'Shirazi' origin myths of many ruling dynasties were political legitimation narratives, not evidence of foreign foundations. The city-states participated in the slave trade, both internally and for export to the Persian Gulf and Indian subcontinent. Portuguese conquest after 1498 was devastating: Vasco da Gama bombarded Mombasa, and the Portuguese destroyed existing trade networks to monopolize Indian Ocean commerce.\n\n[v6.31-oversize-reset] Boundary area was 138,611 km², exceeding city-state ceiling (50,000 km²) by 2.8×. Reset to capital-based circle (30km radius) — likely wrong-polygon inheritance via fuzzy name matching. Manual review recommended if the entity's true extent is known.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier3-swahili-note] Polygon kept at 52 deg² — Miji ya Pwani (\"coastal cities\" in Swahili) refers to the Swahili city-state confederation along E African Indian Ocean coast (Kilwa, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Pate, Mafia, Lamu, Sofala, etc.) from ~800-1505 CE; stretched ~3000 km from Mogadishu to Mozambique. Area appropriate for confederation extent. ETHICS: Portuguese conquest 1505 onwards (da Gama, Almeida, Soares de Albergaria) destroyed many Swahili cities + initiated subordination to European trade.","continent":"Africa","wikidata_qid":null,"capital_history":[]},{"id":793,"entity_type":"city-state","year_start":1200,"year_end":1519,"name_original":"Cholōllān","name_original_lang":"nah","name_variants":[{"name":"Cholula","lang":"es","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Spanish transliteration of the Nahuatl","source":null},{"name":"Tollan-Cholollan","lang":"nah","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Honorific name asserting succession from Tollan (Tula)","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Cholōllān","lat":19.0583,"lon":-98.3025},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[-98.017396782,19.057002064],[-98.023183951,19.004144107],[-98.039693662,18.953373888],[-98.06628332,18.906639417],[-98.101925965,18.865732466],[-98.145250481,18.832220356],[-98.194594457,18.807386432],[-98.248067673,18.792181403],[-98.303623826,18.787187336],[-98.359137876,18.792595614],[-98.41248624,18.808199652],[-98.461626944,18.833402652],[-98.504676878,18.867240128],[-98.539983356,18.908416379],[-98.566187347,18.955353593],[-98.582276,19.006251805],[-98.587622425,19.059157481],[-98.582011052,19.112038203],[-98.565647451,19.162860637],[-98.539151974,19.209668825],[-98.503537241,19.250659773],[-98.460170119,19.284253371],[-98.410719503,19.30915387],[-98.357091847,19.324400423],[-98.301356967,19.329404642],[-98.245667114,19.323973598],[-98.192172637,19.308317342],[-98.142937756,19.283040623],[-98.099859916,19.249119149],[-98.064596051,19.207861411],[-98.038498704,19.160857625],[-98.022564487,19.109917891],[-98.017396782,19.057002064]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.5,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1200,"region":"Puebla valley","change_type":"conquest","description":"Toltec-Chichimec migrants from the north conquer Cholula and re-found it as a Quetzalcoatl pilgrimage center, recorded in the Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.65},{"year":1519,"region":"Cholōllān","change_type":"massacre","description":"Cholula Massacre: Cortés summons Cholula's nobility and warriors into the courtyard of the Quetzalcoatl temple, then orders his troops to kill them. Indigenous accounts in the Florentine Codex describe Spanish soldiers slaughtering unarmed people. Estimates range from 3,000 to 30,000 dead in a few hours; the city is then sacked by Tlaxcalan allies.","population_affected":6000,"confidence_score":0.8},{"year":1531,"region":"Cholula","change_type":"missionization","description":"Franciscans found a convent at Cholula and begin demolishing temples; the Tlachihualtepetl pyramid is largely buried under colonial construction.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.9}],"sources":[{"citation":"Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Oxford University Press, 2003","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. Holy Places and Sacred Landscapes in Mesoamerican Archaeology: The Great Pyramid of Cholula. University Press of Colorado, 2018","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"McCafferty, Geoffrey G. \"The Cholula Massacre: Factional Histories and Archaeology of the Spanish Conquest.\" In The Entangled Past: Integrating History and Archaeology, edited by Madonna L. Moss and Aubrey Cannon, 347-359. Calgary: Chacmool Archaeological Association, 1996.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35877232","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. \"Recent Research in Puebla Prehistory.\" Journal of Archaeological Research 13, no. 2 (2005): 89-127.","url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-005-2484-4","source_type":"journal_article"},{"citation":"Sterpone Canuto, Osvaldo Juan. Mestizaje de fuentes y aplicación arqueológica al estudio del altépetl de Cholula. Mexico City: INAH, 2007. ISBN 978-968-03-0182-6.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9789680301829","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Mountjoy, Joseph B. and David L. Nichols, eds. Mesoamerican Archaeology: Theory and Practice. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005. ISBN 978-0-631-23052-6.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780631230526","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Solís, Felipe et al. Cholula: La gran pirámide. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 2006. ISBN 978-968-03-0205-2.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9789680302052","source_type":"book"}],"ethical_notes":"Cholōllān (Cholula) was a major Postclassic pilgrimage city-state in the Puebla Valley, dominated by the Tlachihualtepetl pyramid (the largest pyramid by volume in the Americas) and the cult of Quetzalcoatl. After Toltec-Chichimec conquest c. 1200, it became a wealthy market and religious center allied with the Aztec Triple Alliance. In October 1519, Hernán Cortés's forces, accompanied by Tlaxcalan allies and prompted by Doña Marina (Malintzin), carried out the Cholula Massacre — surrounding the city's nobles in the temple courtyard and killing an estimated 3,000–6,000 unarmed Cholulteca (some sources say up to 30,000) in a few hours. The massacre was strategically aimed at terrorizing potential allies of Tenochtitlan and is documented in both Spanish (Cortés, Bernal Díaz) and indigenous (Florentine Codex) accounts.\n\n[v6.99.80-postH-visual] Replaced rectangle bbox placeholder polygon (visually obvious as bounding box, not real boundary) with capital-based circle of 30km radius. Approximate but visually honest as approximation rather than pretending to be a documented boundary.","continent":"Americas","wikidata_qid":null,"capital_history":[]},{"id":955,"entity_type":"confederation","year_start":500,"year_end":1535,"name_original":"Manteño-Huancavilca","name_original_lang":"und","name_variants":[{"name":"Manteño","lang":"es","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Spanish archaeological term","source":null},{"name":"Huancavilca","lang":"es","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Related Gulf of Guayaquil people","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Jocay / Salangome","lat":-1.05,"lon":-80.45},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[-80.5,-1.0],[-79.5,-1.0],[-79.5,-3.0],[-80.7,-2.5],[-80.5,-1.0]]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_approximation","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.6,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1526,"region":"Manabí coast","change_type":"contact","description":"Bartolomé Ruiz encounters a Manteño trading balsa off Esmeraldas — first documented European contact with South America's Pacific maritime civilization.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.85},{"year":1535,"region":"Pacific Ecuador","change_type":"conquest","description":"Spanish conquest completed; Manteño absorbed into Spanish tribute system.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.7}],"sources":[{"citation":"Marcos, Jorge G. Arqueología de la Costa Ecuatoriana: Nuevos Enfoques. ESPOL, 1986","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Sámano-Xerez Relación, 1528 — primary Spanish account of Ruiz's Manteño raft encounter","url":null,"source_type":"primary"}],"ethical_notes":"Pacific-coast polities of central-southern Ecuador. The Manteño were the last major pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian coastal culture; their balsa-raft maritime trade (documented by Bartolomé Ruiz's 1526 encounter with a Manteño trading raft carrying 20 tons of goods — gold, silver, textiles) extended from Mesoamerica to Peru, likely facilitating the diffusion of metallurgy. The rafts used centerboard steering. Conquest by Francisco Pizarro 1531–1535. Indigenous paramount name unknown.","continent":"Americas","wikidata_qid":null,"capital_history":[]},{"id":954,"entity_type":"confederation","year_start":500,"year_end":1463,"name_original":"Cañari","name_original_lang":"qu","name_variants":[{"name":"Kañari","lang":"qu","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Quechua variant","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Guapondelig (Tomebamba)","lat":-2.897,"lon":-79.005},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[-78.106017323,-2.895050404],[-78.122826373,-3.071370187],[-78.17351699,-3.241015808],[-78.256165372,-3.397475827],[-78.367619749,-3.534737751],[-78.503616609,-3.647518973],[-78.658940503,-3.731471353],[-78.827622231,-3.78335124],[-79.003168372,-3.801147655],[-79.178813249,-3.7841629],[-79.347783052,-3.733041737],[-79.50356094,-3.649747572],[-79.640141814,-3.537486486],[-79.752266059,-3.400582359],[-79.835622768,-3.24430843],[-79.887014658,-3.074682382],[-79.904478827,-2.898233314],[-79.887359418,-2.72174981],[-79.836330151,-2.552018726],[-79.753366358,-2.395564517],[-79.641667823,-2.258398804],[-79.505535241,-2.145789565],[-79.350204757,-2.06205876],[-79.181646597,-2.010416305],[-79.006335376,-1.992837018],[-78.831000991,-2.009985526],[-78.662369953,-2.061192129],[-78.506907506,-2.144480421],[-78.370570718,-2.256645228],[-78.258582059,-2.39337734],[-78.175231826,-2.549429716],[-78.123716339,-2.718818396],[-78.106017323,-2.895050404]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.5,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1463,"region":"Southern Ecuadorian Andes","change_type":"conquest_massacre","description":"Inca conquest under Tupac Inca Yupanqui. Mass killing of Cañari men and mitmaq deportation. Guapondelig renamed Tomebamba as the northern Inca capital.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.7},{"year":1532,"region":"Northern Andes","change_type":"alliance_switch","description":"Cañari become principal indigenous allies of Pizarro against the Inca.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.85}],"sources":[{"citation":"Idrovo Urigüen, Jaime. Tomebamba: Arqueología e historia de una ciudad imperial. CIDAP, 2000","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Salomon, Frank. The Cord Keepers: Khipus and Cultural Life in a Peruvian Village. Duke University Press, 2004","url":null,"source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"The Cañari confederation of the southern Ecuadorian highlands fought the Inca conquest bitterly (c. 1460–1463) under Duma. After their defeat, Tupac Inca Yupanqui reportedly executed much of the male population and deported survivors as mitmaq; the Cañari capital Guapondelig was rebuilt as the imperial Inca city Tomebamba (birthplace of emperor Huayna Capac). In revenge, Cañari warriors were among the first and most determined indigenous allies of Francisco Pizarro against the Inca (1532 onwards), and remained loyal Spanish auxiliaries throughout the conquest.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier1A] Default placeholder square replaced with 100km circle. Cañari were a pre-Inca confederation in the highlands of Azuay/Cañar/Loja provinces (Ecuador) — Tomebamba capital, extent ~100-150km.","continent":"Americas","wikidata_qid":null,"capital_history":[]},{"id":1010,"entity_type":"settlement","year_start":1000,"year_end":1400,"name_original":"Ntusi","name_original_lang":"nyn","name_variants":[{"name":"Ntusi","lang":"nyn","period_start":1000,"period_end":1400,"context":"Runyankore-Rukiga name","source":"Reid, A. in Journal of African History (1996)"},{"name":"Ntusi earthworks","lang":"en","period_start":1000,"period_end":1400,"context":"archaeological term","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Ntusi","lat":-0.08,"lon":31.05},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[31.094908183,-0.080002125],[31.094044844,-0.088822385],[31.091488824,-0.097303582],[31.08733836,-0.105119764],[31.081752976,-0.111970545],[31.074947339,-0.117592646],[31.067183011,-0.121770019],[31.058758396,-0.124342143],[31.049997262,-0.125210194],[31.041236302,-0.12434084],[31.032812191,-0.121767515],[31.02504865,-0.117589136],[31.018244005,-0.111966291],[31.012659729,-0.105115068],[31.008510396,-0.097298752],[31.005955437,-0.088817705],[31.005093023,-0.079997826],[31.005956289,-0.071178032],[31.008512064,-0.062697235],[31.012662147,-0.054881324],[31.018247073,-0.048030645],[31.025052245,-0.04240846],[31.03281617,-0.038230831],[31.041240508,-0.035658319],[31.050001532,-0.034789805],[31.058762565,-0.035658693],[31.067186921,-0.038231618],[31.074950843,-0.042409726],[31.081755946,-0.04803247],[31.087340687,-0.054883776],[31.091490423,-0.062700347],[31.094045659,-0.071181783],[31.094908183,-0.080002125]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.55,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1400,"region":"western Uganda grasslands","change_type":"abandonment","description":"Ntusi was abandoned around 1400, possibly in connection with the political consolidation at Bigo and later the emergence of the Cwezi-era state.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.5}],"sources":[{"citation":"Reid, Andrew. 'Ntusi and the Development of Social Complexity in Southern Uganda.' In Aspects of African Archaeology, ed. G. Pwiti and R. Soper, 621-627. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications, 1996","url":null,"source_type":"archaeological"},{"citation":"Robertshaw, Peter. 'Archaeological Survey, Ceramic Analysis, and State Formation in Western Uganda.' African Archaeological Review 11 (1994): 105-131","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Sutton, J. E. G. (1998). Ntusi and Bigo: Farmers, cattle-herders and rulers in western Uganda, AD 1000-1500. Azania, 33, 39-72. DOI:10.1080/00672709809511415.","url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00672709809511415","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Reid, A. (1996). Ntusi and the development of social complexity in southern Uganda. In: G. Pwiti & R. Soper (eds.), Aspects of African Archaeology: Papers from the 10th Congress of the PanAfrican Association for Prehistory and Related Studies, pp. 621-628. University of Zimbabwe Publications. ISBN 978-0908307500.","url":"https://uzpress.ac.zw","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Reid, A. (2015). Archaeological Ivory and the Impact of the Elephant in Mawogola. World Archaeology, 47(3), 467-485. DOI:10.1080/00438243.2015.1042575.","url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2015.1042575","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Connah, G. (2004). Forgotten Africa: An Introduction to its Archaeology. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415305914.","url":"https://www.routledge.com/9780415305914","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Schoenbrun, D. L. (1998). A Green Place, A Good Place: Agrarian Change, Gender, and Social Identity in the Great Lakes Region to the 15th Century. James Currey / Heinemann. ISBN 978-0852557341.","url":"https://www.jamescurrey.com/9780852557341","source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS: Ntusi (western Uganda) is the largest pre-Bigo earthwork/earth-mound site in the Great Lakes interlacustrine region, with massive middens (up to 10m high) reflecting long-term cattle-keeping and iron-working occupation c.1000-1400. Predecessor to the Cwezi-era Bigo complex. Associated with the proto-state formation of the region (ancestral Kitara). Recent isotopic analysis (Robertshaw) shows massive cattle concentration, suggesting Ntusi was a political-ritual center accumulating wealth-on-the-hoof. ETHICS: Ntusi's moat-and-mound form became the template for the later Bigo earthwork system. Excluded from the Bunyoro-pre-Babito entity because its earlier dating and distinct archaeological character justify a separate record.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier1B/bantou-fix] Replaced erroneously-shared \"Bantou\" linguistic polygon with 5km circle. Ntusi is an Early Iron Age settlement complex in Sembabule District, Uganda (10th-14th c. CE), with extensive earthworks, cattle enclosures, and rock shelters — a precursor and contemporary of Bigo bya Mugenyi.","continent":"Africa","wikidata_qid":null,"capital_history":[]},{"id":367,"entity_type":"kingdom","year_start":900,"year_end":1589,"name_original":"Tundo","name_original_lang":"tl","name_variants":[{"name":"Kingdom of Tondo","lang":"en","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"English academic convention (reconstructed)","source":"Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society"},{"name":"Tundun","lang":"tl","period_start":900,"period_end":null,"context":"Old Tagalog form from the Laguna Copperplate Inscription (900 CE)","source":"Laguna Copperplate Inscription"},{"name":"東都","lang":"zh","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Chinese trade name appearing in Song dynasty records","source":"Song Shi (History of Song Dynasty)"}],"capital":{"name":"Tondo (Manila Bay)","lat":14.62,"lon":120.97},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"Polygon","coordinates":[[[120.5,15.0],[121.0,15.2],[121.5,14.8],[121.5,14.3],[121.2,14.0],[120.8,14.0],[120.3,14.3],[120.3,14.8],[120.5,15.0]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_map","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.85,"status":"uncertain","territory_changes":[{"year":900,"region":"Manila Bay area","change_type":"EMERGENCE","description":"The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (900 CE) attests to the existence of Tondo as a polity integrated into Indianized Southeast Asian trade networks. The inscription records a debt settlement in Old Malay","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.7},{"year":1571,"region":"Manila Bay","change_type":"CONQUEST_MILITARY","description":"Spanish forces under Legazpi conquered Manila (the Islamic Rajahnate of Maynila) and subjugated neighboring Tondo. Tondo's Lakandula initially cooperated but the indigenous elite was progressively marginalized","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.85},{"year":1589,"region":"Tondo","change_type":"CONQUEST_MILITARY","description":"After the failed Tondo Conspiracy (1587-1588) -- an anti-colonial revolt led by Christianized Filipino nobles -- Spanish authorities executed the conspirators and fully absorbed Tondo into the colonial administration of Manila","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.8}],"sources":[{"citation":"Scott, W.H. (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo de Manila University Press.","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Laguna Copperplate Inscription. 900 CE. National Museum of the Philippines.","url":null,"source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"Postma, A. (1992). 'The Laguna Copperplate Inscription.' Philippine Studies 40(2).","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Scott, W. H. (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-9715501354.","url":"https://www.ateneo.edu/aupress","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Junker, L. L. (1999). Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0824820350.","url":"https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/raiding-trading-and-feasting/","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Jocano, F. L. (2001). Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage. PUNLAD Research House. ISBN 978-9719810506.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/title/filipino-prehistory/oclc/48798555","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Scott, W. H. (1984). Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History (rev. ed.). New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-9711002268.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/title/prehispanic-source-materials/oclc/12030547","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Postma, A. (1992). The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary. Philippine Studies, 40(2), 183-203.","url":"https://www.philippinestudies.net","source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS: name_original in Tagalog. Tondo is attested in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription (900 CE), the oldest known written document from the Philippines, which records a debt settlement in Old Malay with Sanskrit loanwords. This demonstrates pre-colonial Philippine integration into Indianized Southeast Asian trade networks. The polity was governed by a lakandula (paramount ruler). Spanish colonization after 1571 destroyed Tondo's independence; the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-1588, led by Agustin de Legazpi (a Christianized Tondo noble) and Magat Salamat (son of Lakandula), was one of the earliest anti-colonial revolts. Its failure led to the execution of Filipino nobles and the consolidation of Spanish Manila. Pre-colonial Tondo's exact political structure is difficult to reconstruct due to Spanish destruction of indigenous records.","continent":"Asia","wikidata_qid":"Q1642472","capital_history":[]},{"id":1011,"entity_type":"city-state","year_start":700,"year_end":1450,"name_original":"Essouk-Tadmakka","name_original_lang":"ber","name_variants":[{"name":"Tadmakka","lang":"ar","period_start":700,"period_end":1450,"context":"medieval Arabic tradition name, 'resembling Mecca'","source":"Levtzion and Hopkins (1981)"},{"name":"Essouk","lang":"fr","period_start":1800,"period_end":2020,"context":"modern Malian toponym of the archaeological site","source":"Nixon, S. Essouk-Tadmekka (2017)"},{"name":"Tadmekka","lang":"en","period_start":700,"period_end":1450,"context":"alternative English transliteration","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Essouk-Tadmakka","lat":18.8,"lon":1.02},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[1.304552411,18.802802321],[1.299614841,18.749879763],[1.283939216,18.698891108],[1.258136841,18.651793968],[1.223205675,18.610394895],[1.180491049,18.576280472],[1.131633559,18.550756994],[1.07850617,18.53480096],[1.023142945,18.529022185],[0.967662002,18.533640854],[0.91418552,18.548479342],[0.864759659,18.572969063],[0.821277248,18.606172096],[0.785406047,18.646816759],[0.758525166,18.693345855],[0.741672006,18.743975803],[0.735501774,18.796764491],[0.740261178,18.849685353],[0.75577751,18.900704905],[0.781463717,18.947860834],[0.816339526,18.989337637],[0.859068032,19.023536899],[0.90800653,19.049139408],[0.961269721,19.065156633],[1.01680287,19.070969442],[1.072461986,19.06635247],[1.126097762,19.051483083],[1.17563979,19.02693457],[1.219177553,18.993653805],[1.255034866,18.952924304],[1.281834736,18.906316179],[1.298552094,18.855625043],[1.304552411,18.802802321]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.5,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1083,"region":"central Sahara","change_type":"attack","description":"Almoravid forces attacked Tadmakka. The Banu Tanamak Sufri Kharijite dynasty was eventually pressured into Maliki Sunni conformity but retained local autonomy.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.55},{"year":1450,"region":"central Sahara","change_type":"decline","description":"Progressive decline as Songhai power pulled Saharan trade north-south through Gao, bypassing Tadmakka's east-west axis.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.55}],"sources":[{"citation":"Nixon, Sam, ed. Essouk-Tadmekka: An Early Islamic Trans-Saharan Market Town. Leiden: Brill, 2017","url":null,"source_type":"archaeological"},{"citation":"Nixon, Sam. 'Excavating Essouk-Tadmakka: New Archaeological Investigations of Early Islamic Trans-Saharan Trade.' Azania 44 (2009): 217-255","url":null,"source_type":"archaeological"},{"citation":"Nixon, Sam, ed. Essouk-Tadmekka: An Early Islamic Trans-Saharan Market Town. Leiden: Brill, 2017. ISBN 978-90-04-34740-3.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9789004347403","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Insoll, Timothy. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-521-65171-4.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780521651714","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Nixon, Sam. \"Excavating Essouk-Tadmakka (Mali): New Archaeological Investigations of Early Islamic Trans-Saharan Trade.\" Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 44, no. 2 (2009): 217-255.","url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00671990903047860","source_type":"journal_article"},{"citation":"Mauny, Raymond. Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au Moyen Age d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie. Dakar: IFAN, 1961.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1244432","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Levtzion, Nehemia and J.F.P. Hopkins, eds. Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-521-22422-0.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780521224222","source_type":"book"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS: Essouk (identified with medieval Tadmakka, 'resembling Mecca' in Berber, in northern Mali) was a Berber city-state and major Saharan entrepot between the 9th and 14th centuries. Al-Bakri (1068) described Tadmakka as richer than any city in the Western Sudan except Wagadou. Excavated by Sam Nixon 2005-2010; finds include gold-processing evidence (imitation dinars molds), early Arabic and Tifinagh inscriptions, and extensive Muslim tombstones. ETHICS: Tadmakka was the seat of the Berber Banu Tanamak dynasty, a Sufri Kharijite lineage like the Midrarids. The Banu Tanamak claimed descent from early companions of the Prophet — a classic claim of noble Muslim ancestry in a frontier context. Distinct from the Takedda entity above: Tadmakka is NW of Takedda and considerably larger and better-documented.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier1A] Default placeholder square replaced with 30km circle. Essouk-Tadmakka was a Saharan oasis trade city in Adagh des Ifoghas, Mali (8th–13th c. CE) — small city + caravanserai hinterland ~30km.","continent":"Africa","wikidata_qid":null,"capital_history":[]},{"id":311,"entity_type":"confederation","year_start":-40000,"year_end":null,"name_original":"Yolŋu","name_original_lang":"und","name_variants":[{"name":"Yolngu","lang":"en","period_start":-40000,"period_end":null,"context":"Anglicized spelling of Yolŋu, the self-designation meaning 'people' or 'Aboriginal person'","source":"Morphy, H. Ancestral Connections: Art and an Aboriginal System of Knowledge (1991)"},{"name":"Murngin","lang":"en","period_start":1930,"period_end":1970,"context":"Outdated exonym used by anthropologist Lloyd Warner; now considered inappropriate","source":"Warner, W.L. A Black Civilization (1937) — NOTE: outdated terminology"},{"name":"Popolo Yolngu","lang":"it","period_start":-40000,"period_end":null,"context":"Italian designation","source":"Ferraro, G. Oceania: Popoli e culture (2005)"}],"capital":{"name":"Arnhem Land (Yirrkala area)","lat":-12.25,"lon":136.8833},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[133.0,-11.5],[137.0,-11.5],[137.0,-14.5],[133.0,-14.5],[132.5,-12.5],[133.0,-11.5]]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_approximation","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.55,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":-40000,"region":"Arnhem Land","change_type":"INDEPENDENCE","description":"Aboriginal occupation of Arnhem Land dates to at least 65,000 years ago (Madjedbebe). The Yolngu clan system and moiety structure (Dhuwa and Yirritja) are among the most complex kinship systems documented anywhere. Rock art at sites like Injalak dates back tens of thousands of years.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.2},{"year":1700,"region":"Northeast Arnhem Land coast","change_type":"CONQUEST_DIPLOMATIC","description":"Regular seasonal visits by Macassan trepang fishermen from Sulawesi are well-attested archaeologically and in Yolngu oral tradition. This trade relationship introduced metal tools, tobacco, and Malay loanwords into Yolngu languages. Tamarind trees planted by Macassans still grow on the Arnhem Land coast. This predates European contact by over a century.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.5},{"year":1963,"region":"Yirrkala, Arnhem Land","change_type":"INDEPENDENCE","description":"Yolngu leaders present the Yirrkala bark petitions to the Australian Parliament, protesting the excision of land from the Arnhem Land reserve for bauxite mining by Nabalco (a subsidiary of Swiss Aluminium). The petitions, painted on eucalyptus bark with traditional clan designs and typed text, are recognized as the first formal Aboriginal documents acknowledged by Parliament.","population_affected":3000,"confidence_score":0.9}],"sources":[{"citation":"Morphy, H. Ancestral Connections: Art and an Aboriginal System of Knowledge (1991)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Berndt, R.M. & Berndt, C.H. Arnhem Land: Its History and Its People (1954)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Yirrkala Bark Petitions (1963), Parliament of Australia","url":null,"source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"Macknight, C.C. The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia (1976)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd (1971) 17 FLR 141","url":null,"source_type":"primary"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS-007: The Yolngu people of northeast Arnhem Land represent one of the most culturally intact Aboriginal societies, partly because European colonization reached their territory later than southern Australia. The Yolngu had extensive pre-European trade contacts with Macassan (Indonesian) trepang (sea cucumber) fishermen dating back centuries — evidence of sophisticated international relations before European contact. The Yolngu bark petitions (1963) — formal petitions to the Australian Parliament written on bark and framed with traditional designs — are among the most important documents in Australian indigenous rights history. The Gove land rights case (Milirrpum v Nabalco, 1971) was the first Aboriginal land rights case in Australia, and though it failed legally, it catalyzed the land rights movement. The Blue Mud Bay decision (2008) established Yolngu sea rights. The 'und' language code is used because there are multiple Yolngu Matha (Yolngu languages), including Djambarrpuyngu, Gumatj, and Rirratjingu.","continent":"Oceania","wikidata_qid":"Q374277","capital_history":[]},{"id":568,"entity_type":"principality","year_start":1157,"year_end":1618,"name_original":"Mark Brandenburg","name_original_lang":"de","name_variants":[{"name":"March of Brandenburg","lang":"en","period_start":1157,"period_end":1618,"context":"Standard English denomination","source":"Schich, Winfried. Wirtschaft und Kulturlandschaft: Gesammelte Beitrage 1977-1999 zur Geschichte der Zisterzienser und der 'Germania Slavica' (2007)"},{"name":"Marchia Brandenburgensis","lang":"la","period_start":1157,"period_end":1618,"context":"Latin form used in Imperial documents and ecclesiastical records","source":"Assing, Helmut. Die Landesherrschaft der Askanier, Wittelsbacher und Luxemburger (1995)"},{"name":"Marka Brandenburska","lang":"hsb","period_start":1157,"period_end":1618,"context":"Upper Sorbian name reflecting the indigenous Slavic perspective; Sorbian populations survived in parts of the margraviate, particularly in Lusatia","source":"Stone, Gerald. The Smallest Slavonic Nation: The Sorbs of Lusatia (1972)"}],"capital":{"name":"Brandenburg an der Havel","lat":52.4125,"lon":12.5316},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[11.3,53.5],[14.5,53.5],[15.5,52.5],[14.5,51.5],[12.5,51.5],[11.5,52.5],[11.3,53.5]]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_approximation","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.85,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1157,"region":"Brandenburg (Slavic Hevelli territory)","change_type":"CONQUEST_MILITARY","description":"Albert the Bear conquered the fortress of Brandenburg from the Slavic Hevelli prince Jaxa of Kopanica, establishing the March of Brandenburg. This was part of the broader German eastward expansion (Ostsiedlung) that systematically dispossessed Slavic populations east of the Elbe. German colonists were settled on formerly Slavic lands, and Slavic place names were Germanized.","population_affected":50000,"confidence_score":0.75},{"year":1356,"region":"Brandenburg (Imperial elevation)","change_type":"CONQUEST_DIPLOMATIC","description":"The Golden Bull of 1356 confirmed Brandenburg as one of the seven prince-electorates of the Holy Roman Empire, granting the Margrave a permanent vote in Imperial elections. This cemented Brandenburg's political importance within the Empire and set the stage for its eventual growth into the core of the Prussian state.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.9},{"year":1618,"region":"Brandenburg-Prussia (personal union)","change_type":"CONQUEST_DIPLOMATIC","description":"Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg inherited the Duchy of Prussia, creating the Brandenburg-Prussia personal union that would eventually grow into the Kingdom of Prussia. This dynastic union linked a territory within the Holy Roman Empire to one outside it, creating a unique political situation.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.9}],"sources":[{"citation":"Assing, Helmut. Die Landesherrschaft der Askanier, Wittelsbacher und Luxemburger. In: Brandenburgische Geschichte (Hrsg. Materna/Ribbe), Akademie Verlag, 1995","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Higounet, Charles. Die deutsche Ostsiedlung im Mittelalter. Siedler Verlag, 1986","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Koch, H. W. (1978). A History of Prussia. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0880291583.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/title/history-of-prussia/oclc/4138030","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Clark, C. (2006). Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674023857.","url":"https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674023857","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Schultze, J. (1961-1969). Die Mark Brandenburg, 5 vols. Duncker & Humblot.","url":"https://www.duncker-humblot.de","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Materna, I. & Ribbe, W. (eds.) (1995). Brandenburgische Geschichte. Akademie Verlag. ISBN 978-3050020017.","url":"https://www.degruyter.com/document/isbn/9783050020017","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Heinrich, G. (ed.) (1985). Berlin und seine Wirtschaft. Akademie-Verlag.","url":"https://www.degruyter.com","source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS-001: name_original in German, the language of the ruling class. The Slavic population of the region (Wends/Sorbs) called it differently. ETHICS-002: The March of Brandenburg was created through the violent German eastward expansion (Ostsiedlung/Drang nach Osten) that dispossessed and assimilated Slavic populations (Wends, Sorbs, Hevelli). Albert the Bear's conquest (1157) and subsequent colonization systematically replaced Slavic place names, institutions, and populations with German ones. This constitutes cultural genocide of the Polabian Slavic peoples. The indigenous Slavic population was either assimilated, marginalized, or driven out. ETHICS-003: entity_type is 'principality' as 'march/margraviate' is not in the schema but the March was technically a frontier territory.\n\n[v6.31-oversize-reset] Boundary area was 1,407,800 km², exceeding principality ceiling (300,000 km²) by 4.7×. Reset to capital-based circle (80km radius) — likely wrong-polygon inheritance via fuzzy name matching. Manual review recommended if the entity's true extent is known. [v6.75 audit v4 Fase B] Drift Wikidata: year_end drift 188y vs Wikidata Q148499. AtlasPI mantiene il proprio dato; la differenza riflette convention diverse (es. site vs polity, capital iconica vs storica iniziale). Cross-reference Q-ID: Q148499 ('Margraviate of Brandenburg').","continent":"Europe","wikidata_qid":"Q148499","capital_history":[]},{"id":310,"entity_type":"confederation","year_start":-40000,"year_end":null,"name_original":"Kulin Nation","name_original_lang":"und","name_variants":[{"name":"Kulin Nation","lang":"en","period_start":-40000,"period_end":null,"context":"English name for the confederation; 'Kulin' means 'man/people' in the Kulin languages","source":"Clark, I.D. Aboriginal Languages and Clans: An Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria (1990)"},{"name":"Kulin alliance","lang":"en","period_start":-40000,"period_end":null,"context":"Alternative term emphasizing the alliance structure","source":"Presland, G. The Place for a Village: How Nature Has Shaped the City of Melbourne (2008)"},{"name":"Nazione Kulin","lang":"it","period_start":-40000,"period_end":null,"context":"Italian translation","source":"Ferraro, G. Oceania: Popoli e culture (2005)"}],"capital":{"name":"Naarm (Melbourne area)","lat":-37.8136,"lon":144.9631},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[143.0,-35.5],[146.5,-35.5],[147.0,-39.0],[143.5,-39.0],[142.5,-37.0],[143.0,-35.5]]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_approximation","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.5,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":-40000,"region":"Central Victoria","change_type":"INDEPENDENCE","description":"Aboriginal occupation of the Melbourne region dates to at least 40,000 years ago based on archaeological evidence from Keilor and other sites. The Kulin people developed sophisticated land management including fire-stick farming of the Western Victorian grasslands, eel farming at Budj Bim (now a UNESCO World Heritage Site), and extensive trade networks.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.2},{"year":1835,"region":"Naarm (Melbourne)","change_type":"CONQUEST_MILITARY","description":"John Batman's so-called 'treaty' with Kulin elders — the only attempt at a treaty with Aboriginal Australians — was voided by Governor Bourke who declared it invalid under terra nullius. Melbourne was founded on unceded Kulin land. The Kulin population was rapidly devastated by disease and frontier violence.","population_affected":10000,"confidence_score":0.6},{"year":1863,"region":"Coranderrk","change_type":"CONQUEST_DIPLOMATIC","description":"Kulin survivors are confined to Coranderrk Aboriginal Station in the Yarra Ranges. Despite this, the Kulin community organized politically, with leaders like William Barak and Simon Wonga petitioning the colonial government — one of the earliest organized Aboriginal resistance movements in Australia.","population_affected":300,"confidence_score":0.75}],"sources":[{"citation":"Clark, I.D. Aboriginal Languages and Clans: An Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria, 1800-1900 (1990)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Presland, G. The Place for a Village: How Nature Has Shaped the City of Melbourne (2008)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Broome, R. Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800 (2005)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Barwick, D. Rebellion at Coranderrk (1998)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Batman's deed (1835), State Library of Victoria","url":null,"source_type":"primary"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS-007: The Kulin Nation is a confederation of five Aboriginal language groups — Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung, Taungurung, Dja Dja Wurrung, and Wathaurong — whose traditional territory encompasses what is now Greater Melbourne and central Victoria. The city of Melbourne (Naarm) was founded on Wurundjeri and Boonwurrung country without treaty in 1835. John Batman's 'treaty' with Kulin elders was voided by the colonial government. The Kulin people were systematically dispossessed, with survivors confined to missions (Coranderrk, established 1863). The Coranderrk resistance movement (1870s-1880s) was one of the first organized Aboriginal political campaigns. The confidence score is very low for the start date because Aboriginal occupation of the region is archaeologically attested to at least 40,000 years but the political organization of the Kulin confederation in its historical form may be more recent. Modern Kulin nations are actively pursuing land justice and cultural revival.","continent":"Oceania","wikidata_qid":"Q930202","capital_history":[]},{"id":1032,"entity_type":"sultanate","year_start":1200,"year_end":1400,"name_original":"سلطنة الداجو","name_original_lang":"ar","name_variants":[{"name":"Daju Kingdom","lang":"en","period_start":1200,"period_end":1400,"context":"English academic designation","source":"O'Fahey, R.S. State and Society in Dar Fur (1980)"}],"capital":{"name":"Uri","lat":12.7,"lon":24.2},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[25.30501,12.7],[25.28822,12.88719],[25.23837,13.06869],[25.15696,13.23899],[25.04649,13.39291],[24.91029,13.52578],[24.7525,13.63355],[24.57793,13.71296],[24.39188,13.7616],[24.2,13.77797],[24.00812,13.7616],[23.82207,13.71296],[23.6475,13.63355],[23.48971,13.52578],[23.35351,13.39291],[23.24304,13.23899],[23.16163,13.06869],[23.11178,12.88719],[23.09499,12.7],[23.11178,12.51281],[23.16163,12.33131],[23.24304,12.16101],[23.35351,12.00709],[23.48971,11.87422],[23.6475,11.76645],[23.82207,11.68704],[24.00812,11.6384],[24.2,11.62203],[24.39188,11.6384],[24.57793,11.68704],[24.7525,11.76645],[24.91029,11.87422],[25.04649,12.00709],[25.15696,12.16101],[25.23837,12.33131],[25.28822,12.51281],[25.30501,12.7]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.45,"status":"uncertain","territory_changes":[{"year":1400,"region":"Darfur","change_type":"dynastic_change","description":"The Daju were displaced by the Tunjur confederation, who in turn were replaced by the Keira Sultanate of Darfur (existing DB entity).","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.35}],"sources":[{"citation":"O'Fahey, Rex S. State and Society in Dar Fur. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Macmichael, Harold A. A History of the Arabs in the Sudan. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922","url":null,"source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"O'Fahey, R.S. & Spaulding, J.L. Kingdoms of the Sudan, Methuen (1974)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"O'Fahey, R.S. The Darfur Sultanate: A History, Hurst / Columbia Univ. Press (2008)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Arkell, A.J. 'The History of Darfur 1200-1700 A.D.', Sudan Notes and Records (1951-52)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS: The Daju were the first state-forming people of Darfur (western Sudan), preceding the Tunjur and then the Keira Sultanate covered by existing DB 'Saltanat Dar Fur'. Oral traditions (Macmichael, O'Fahey) place the Daju c.1200-1400. The capital Uri is an archaeological site with stone ruins. Very low confidence because nearly all sources are 19th-20th c. oral tradition retrojected. ETHICS: including this documents pre-Keira political life in Darfur, a historiographically marginalized region. If ingest finds evidence too thin, skip.\n\n[S52-enrich] ETHICS-014 / suggestion #82: i Daju (primo regno noto del Darfur, ~1200-1400) e i loro successori Tunjur condividevano un poligono identico — bug risolto dando cerchi distinti attorno a capitali distinte e sourcedate (i Daju nel Jebel Marra MERIDIONALE, dove il sultano Ahmed el-Daj trasferi' la capitale ~1100; O'Fahey). Documentazione scarsa: confidence tenuta a 0.45 (status uncertain) per onesta'. Fonti: O'Fahey & Spaulding, O'Fahey 2008, Arkell.","continent":"Africa","wikidata_qid":"Q50825947","capital_history":[]},{"id":309,"entity_type":"confederation","year_start":-65000,"year_end":null,"name_original":"Aboriginal Australian Nations","name_original_lang":"und","name_variants":[{"name":"Aboriginal Australians","lang":"en","period_start":-65000,"period_end":null,"context":"General English designation. Many Aboriginal people prefer to be identified by their specific nation.","source":"Pascoe, B. Dark Emu: Aboriginal Australians and the Birth of Agriculture (2014)"},{"name":"First Nations (Australia)","lang":"en","period_start":-65000,"period_end":null,"context":"Term increasingly used in Australian discourse, adopted from Canadian usage","source":"Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS)"},{"name":"First Peoples","lang":"en","period_start":-65000,"period_end":null,"context":"Alternative inclusive term","source":"AIATSIS"},{"name":"Aborigeni australiani","lang":"it","period_start":-65000,"period_end":null,"context":"Italian designation","source":"Ferraro, G. Oceania: Popoli e culture (2005)"}],"capital":{"name":"various (no single capital; continent-wide)","lat":-25.2744,"lon":133.7751},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[114.0,-21.5],[114.5,-26.0],[115.5,-30.0],[114.5,-33.5],[119.0,-34.5],[127.0,-32.5],[133.5,-32.0],[138.0,-35.5],[140.0,-37.5],[143.0,-38.5],[146.5,-38.7],[150.0,-37.2],[151.5,-32.0],[153.5,-28.0],[153.0,-25.0],[152.0,-22.0],[148.0,-20.0],[145.5,-15.5],[142.5,-10.7],[141.5,-13.0],[139.0,-17.0],[136.5,-15.5],[132.0,-12.0],[129.5,-15.0],[126.5,-14.0],[122.5,-16.5],[121.0,-19.5],[118.0,-20.5],[114.0,-21.5]]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_approximation","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.6,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":-65000,"region":"Northern Australia","change_type":"INDEPENDENCE","description":"Earliest evidence of human presence in Australia (Madjedbebe rock shelter, Northern Territory). These first Australians arrived by sea from Southeast Asia, making them among the earliest maritime voyagers in human history. Over millennia, they developed complex land management systems (fire-stick farming), extensive trade networks, and sophisticated knowledge systems (Songlines/Dreaming tracks).","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.4},{"year":1788,"region":"Australia","change_type":"CONQUEST_MILITARY","description":"British invasion begins with the First Fleet at Sydney Cove. The declaration of terra nullius denied Aboriginal sovereignty and land rights without any treaty. The estimated pre-contact Aboriginal population of 750,000-1,000,000 was reduced to approximately 93,000 by 1900 through frontier violence, introduced diseases, and deliberate policies of dispossession. This constitutes genocide by any modern definition.","population_affected":750000,"confidence_score":0.7},{"year":1967,"region":"Australia","change_type":"INDEPENDENCE","description":"The 1967 referendum amends the Australian constitution to count Aboriginal people in the census and allow the federal government to legislate for them. While often described as 'giving Aboriginal people citizenship', this oversimplifies a complex legal situation. Aboriginal sovereignty was never ceded and remains a central political question (Uluru Statement from the Heart, 2017).","population_affected":200000,"confidence_score":0.9}],"sources":[{"citation":"Clarkson, C. et al. 'Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago', Nature 547 (2017)","url":null,"source_type":"archaeological"},{"citation":"Pascoe, B. Dark Emu: Aboriginal Australians and the Birth of Agriculture (2014)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Reynolds, H. The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia (1981)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Uluru Statement from the Heart (2017)","url":null,"source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS), map of Indigenous Australia","url":null,"source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS-007: CRITICAL — Aboriginal Australians represent the oldest continuous civilization on Earth, with archaeological evidence dating to at least 65,000 years ago (Madjedbebe rock shelter, Arnhem Land). At the time of European invasion (1788), there were an estimated 250+ distinct language groups and 500+ clan groups across the continent, each with its own country (traditional territory), law, and governance. Representing all Aboriginal nations as a single entity is a significant simplification necessary for database inclusion but MUST NOT be used to flatten the extraordinary diversity of Aboriginal cultures. The British legal fiction of terra nullius ('land belonging to no one') — used to justify colonization without treaty — was not overturned until the Mabo decision (1992). Aboriginal Australians suffered systematic genocide, forced removal of children (Stolen Generations, 1910-1970), destruction of sacred sites, and ongoing dispossession. The language code is 'und' because there are 250+ Aboriginal language groups. The coordinates represent the geographic center of Australia, not any specific nation's territory.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier3-australia-ethics] Entity classification \"Aboriginal Australian Nations\" as single confederation is HISTORICALLY INACCURATE and ETHNOGRAPHICALLY PROBLEMATIC. Aboriginal Australians comprise 250+ distinct nations with separate languages, songlines, custodial relationships to country (Pintupi, Yolŋu, Noongar, Pitjantjatjara, Warlpiri, Arrernte, Eora, Wiradjuri, Murawari, etc.). ETHICS: representing them as one polygon erases this diversity. Some specific nations are tracked separately (Noongar id=771, Wiradjuri id=772, Yolŋu id=311, Kulin id=310, Torres Strait id=308). Polygon should remain as continental marker but specific nations need disaggregation. Manual review recommended.\n\n[v6.99.80-postH-visual] Replaced placeholder rectangle bbox (1113 deg² covering ocean) with hand-coded continental coastline polygon (~28 points, ~700 deg² actual land area). Still approximate but no longer visually obvious as bbox rectangle. Polygon represents the geographic spread of Aboriginal Australian peoples before British colonization began 1788; specific nations have their own region-specific polygons (Noongar SW, Wiradjuri NSW, Yolŋu Arnhem, Kulin Victoria, Torres Strait northern islands, etc.).","continent":"Oceania","wikidata_qid":"Q12060728","capital_history":[]},{"id":600,"entity_type":"kingdom","year_start":1232,"year_end":1341,"name_original":"දඹදෙණිය රාජධානිය","name_original_lang":"si","name_variants":[{"name":"Kingdom of Dambadeniya","lang":"en","period_start":1232,"period_end":1341,"context":"Capital-based designation for the first phase of post-Polonnaruwa Sinhalese kingdoms","source":null},{"name":"දඹදෙණිය රාජධානිය","lang":"si","period_start":1232,"period_end":1341,"context":"Sinhalese name for the kingdom during the Dambadeniya capital period","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Dambadeniya","lat":7.4656,"lon":80.1728},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[81.079078846,7.466367365],[81.061639973,7.289895136],[81.010082514,7.120204665],[80.926419619,6.963806546],[80.813886633,6.826696331],[80.676814908,6.714126452],[80.520465404,6.630406481],[80.350828101,6.578739226],[80.174394498,6.561098957],[79.99791157,6.578156555],[79.828126388,6.629254537],[79.671530995,6.712432876],[79.534117115,6.824504461],[79.421149737,6.961177043],[79.336967744,7.117216755],[79.284818606,7.286646885],[79.266732918,7.46297446],[79.283443291,7.639436451],[79.334350866,7.809256806],[79.4175414,7.965905177],[79.529851478,8.103347943],[79.66698374,8.216282058],[79.823668074,8.300342492],[79.993863556,8.352274582],[80.170993693,8.370063714],[80.348205409,8.353016328],[80.518640621,8.301788359],[80.675708294,8.218359644],[80.81334482,8.10595544],[80.926251372,7.968918648],[81.010098388,7.812538577],[81.061689428,7.642843735],[81.079078846,7.466367365]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.55,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1232,"region":"Southwestern Sri Lanka","change_type":"LIBERATION","description":"Vijayabahu III established the kingdom at Dambadeniya after expelling the Kalinga (Odisha) invader Magha from much of the island. He secured the Tooth Relic and the Pali Tripitaka, re-establishing Sinhalese Buddhist sovereignty. The northern Jaffna Kingdom remained independent under Tamil rule.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.65}],"sources":[{"citation":"De Silva, K.M. A History of Sri Lanka. University of California Press, 1981 (repr. 2005)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Culavamsa (Minor Chronicle), chapters 80-93. Trans. Wilhelm Geiger, 1929-1930","url":null,"source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"Paranavitana, S. and C.W. Nicholas. A Concise History of Ceylon. Ceylon University Press, 1961","url":null,"source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS: The Dambadeniya Kingdom represents the Sinhalese political recovery after the Chola and Kalinga invasions destroyed the Polonnaruwa kingdom (already in database). The shifting capitals (Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Kurunegala, Gampola, Kotte) reflect political instability and external pressure. The period saw the consolidation of Theravada Buddhist identity as a defining feature of Sinhalese political legitimacy, which later contributed to ethnic tensions with Tamil populations. The Tooth Relic's movements between capitals was a key legitimation device, as possessing it was considered essential to rightful sovereignty. [v6.75 audit v4 Fase B] Drift Wikidata: year_start drift 180y vs Wikidata Q1589163. AtlasPI mantiene il proprio dato; la differenza riflette convention diverse (es. site vs polity, capital iconica vs storica iniziale). Cross-reference Q-ID: Q1589163 ('Kingdom of Kotte').\n\n[v6.99.79-tier3/600-fix] ការ្យ​ ​សីលេន (Karya Silaen?, 1232-?) — Khmer-era polity, possibly related to Angkor administration; needs research.","continent":"Asia","wikidata_qid":"Q3136869","capital_history":[]},{"id":159,"entity_type":"confederation","year_start":1100,"year_end":1896,"name_original":"Moose","name_original_lang":"mos","name_variants":[{"name":"Mossi Kingdoms","lang":"en","period_start":1100,"period_end":1896,"context":"denominazione inglese","source":"Izard, M. Moogo: l'emergence d'un espace etatique ouest-africain (2003)"},{"name":"Regni Mossi","lang":"it","period_start":1100,"period_end":1896,"context":"denominazione italiana","source":"Enciclopedia Treccani"},{"name":"Royaumes Mossi","lang":"fr","period_start":1100,"period_end":1896,"context":"denominazione francese","source":"Izard, M. Moogo (2003)"}],"capital":{"name":"Ouagadougou","lat":12.3714,"lon":-1.5197},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[0.31834275,12.35518758],[0.278722062,12.003346729],[0.170428399,11.665775363],[-0.002208703,11.355318767],[-0.232485409,11.083773854],[-0.511581467,10.861456618],[-0.828885937,10.69682021],[-1.17238314,10.596137331],[-1.5290887,10.563260208],[-1.88552236,10.599469616],[-2.228201178,10.703421023],[-2.544134709,10.871191311],[-2.821303451,11.096424303],[-3.049103203,11.370568428],[-3.218740554,11.683195971],[-3.323567675,12.022390914],[-3.359347004,12.37519123],[-3.324437676,12.72807122],[-3.219895787,13.067449286],[-3.049480163,13.380205823],[-2.81955551,13.654194388],[-2.53888671,13.878727101],[-2.218322555,14.045013099],[-1.87037452,14.14652781],[-1.50870551,14.179291753],[-1.1475532,14.142041247],[-0.801120487,14.036279746],[-0.482969771,13.866206677],[-0.205457166,13.638529409],[0.020762553,13.362171766],[0.187138099,13.047898026],[0.287518681,12.707874091],[0.31834275,12.35518758]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.6,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1100,"region":"Africa Occidentale (odierno Burkina Faso)","change_type":"INDEPENDENCE","description":"Fondazione tradizionale dei regni Mossi (Ouagadougou, Yatenga, Tenkodogo). Secondo la tradizione orale, fondati dai discendenti della principessa Yennenga.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.35},{"year":1896,"region":"Burkina Faso attuale","change_type":"COLONIZATION","description":"Conquista francese. Il Mogho Naaba Wobogo di Ouagadougou rifiuta il protettorato e viene deposto. Creazione della colonia dell'Alto Volta. Lavoro forzato e reclutamento militare imposti alla popolazione.","population_affected":2000000,"confidence_score":0.75}],"sources":[{"citation":"Izard, M. Moogo: l'emergence d'un espace etatique ouest-africain (2003)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Skinner, E.P. The Mossi of the Upper Volta (1964)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Skinner, Elliott P. The Mossi of the Upper Volta: The Political Development of a Sudanese People. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964. ISBN 978-0-8047-0140-5.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780804701402","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Izard, Michel. Gens du pouvoir, gens de la terre: Les institutions politiques de l'ancien royaume du Yatenga. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. ISBN 978-0-521-30169-4.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780521301695","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Hammond, Peter B. Yatenga: Technology in the Culture of a West African Kingdom. New York: Free Press, 1966.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/418547","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Wilks, Ivor. Wa and the Wala: Islam and Polity in Northwestern Ghana. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-521-36408-7.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780521364089","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Kuba, Richard and Carola Lentz, eds. Land and the Politics of Belonging in West Africa. Leiden: Brill, 2006. ISBN 978-90-04-15050-8.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9789004150508","source_type":"book"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS-001: il nome originale e' in Moore (lingua Mossi). 'Mossi' e' la forma francese. ETHICS-002: i regni Mossi resistettero alle espansioni islamiche del Mali e del Songhai, mantenendo le religioni tradizionali. Questa resistenza e' significativa nella storia della pluralita' religiosa africana. La conquista francese (1896-1897) distrusse l'indipendenza dei regni, ma il Mogho Naaba (re di Ouagadougou) mantiene ancora oggi un ruolo cerimoniale importante.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier3/mossi-fix] Replaced shared polygon with 200km circle. Moose (Mossi Kingdoms of Burkina Faso, 1100-1896) — federation of 4-5 Mossi states (Ouagadougou, Yatenga, Tenkodogo, Fada N'Gourma, Riziam); resisted Mali + Songhai + jihad states; capital Ouagadougou; conquered by French 1896.","continent":"Africa","wikidata_qid":"Q862522","capital_history":[]},{"id":1019,"entity_type":"city-state","year_start":750,"year_end":1437,"name_original":"Shanga","name_original_lang":"swc","name_variants":[{"name":"Shanga","lang":"swc","period_start":750,"period_end":1437,"context":"Swahili name","source":"Horton, M. Shanga (1996)"}],"capital":{"name":"Shanga","lat":-2.08,"lon":41.14},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[41.0,-2.0],[41.3,-2.0],[41.35,-2.3],[41.05,-2.35],[40.95,-2.15],[41.0,-2.0]]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_approximation","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.65,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1437,"region":"Pate Island","change_type":"abandonment","description":"Shanga was abandoned c.1437 (radiocarbon-dated final occupation), probably due to political consolidation under nearby Pate. The mosque was allowed to collapse without reconstruction.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.7}],"sources":[{"citation":"Horton, Mark. Shanga: The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa. London: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1996","url":null,"source_type":"archaeological"},{"citation":"Fleisher, J. et al. (2015). When Did the Swahili Become Maritime? American Anthropologist 117(1).","url":"https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.12171","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Wynne-Jones, S. (2013). The public life of the Swahili stonehouse, 14th–15th centuries AD. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32(4).","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2013.05.003","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Marchant, R. et al. (2018). Drivers and trajectories of land cover change in East Africa: human and environmental interactions from 6000 years ago to present. Earth-Science Reviews 178.","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.12.010","source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS: Shanga (Pate Island, Kenya) is one of the most thoroughly excavated early Swahili sites (Horton 1980-1988) and has produced crucial evidence for the ORIGINS of Swahili civilization. The site shows continuous occupation from c.750, with the earliest known mosque (late 8th c., pre-dating any other on the coast) built of timber, then rebuilt in stone. Burials include Muslim-style (east-west, flexed) and traditional-style (grave goods), suggesting a hybrid phase of conversion. ETHICS — historiographically critical: Shanga's evidence demolishes the old 'Arab colonists' theory of Swahili origins. The site shows local iron-age African populations gradually adopting Islam and Indian Ocean trade — an indigenous African Islamic civilization, not an Arab colonial outpost.\n\n[v6.31-oversize-reset] Boundary area was 335,242 km², exceeding city-state ceiling (50,000 km²) by 6.7×. Reset to capital-based circle (30km radius) — likely wrong-polygon inheritance via fuzzy name matching. Manual review recommended if the entity's true extent is known.","continent":"Africa","wikidata_qid":"Q3913931","capital_history":[]},{"id":887,"entity_type":"kingdom","year_start":1225,"year_end":1613,"name_original":"Haru","name_original_lang":"ms","name_variants":[{"name":"Aru","lang":"id","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"modern Indonesian spelling","source":null},{"name":"He-lu / 訶陵","lang":"zh","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Song and Ming Chinese transcription — note: 訶陵 is more commonly associated with Kalingga in central Java; Haru uses different characters in some Ming sources","source":null},{"name":"Aru Barumun","lang":"id","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"full name reflecting the Barumun river region","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Kota Cina (North Sumatra)","lat":3.7,"lon":98.7},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[99.600526846,3.69984689],[99.583111539,3.523370381],[99.531784001,3.353693286],[99.448529482,3.19732897],[99.336553599,3.06027858],[99.200159392,2.947801702],[99.044583033,2.864214912],[98.875793985,2.812725993],[98.700266884,2.795310448],[98.524733774,2.812635375],[98.355926283,2.864033904],[98.200317923,2.947531245],[98.06387664,3.059921206],[97.951837169,3.196889898],[97.868501743,3.353181515],[97.817076322,3.522799543],[97.79954806,3.699235644],[97.81660821,3.875717682],[97.867623231,4.045467875],[97.950655435,4.20196174],[98.062533061,4.339178421],[98.198968055,4.451833021],[98.354718066,4.535581905],[98.523787209,4.587192601],[98.699658194,4.604671053],[98.875546599,4.587340581],[99.044666674,4.535868902],[99.200497304,4.452241953],[99.337036716,4.339685671],[99.449035261,4.202539272],[99.532196969,4.046085613],[99.58334234,3.876345867],[99.600526846,3.69984689]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.55,"status":"uncertain","territory_changes":[{"year":1225,"region":"North Sumatra east coast","change_type":"attestation","description":"Zhao Rugua's Zhu Fan Zhi documents He-lu among Sumatran ports trading in camphor, rattan and benzoin.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.5},{"year":1365,"region":"North Sumatra","change_type":"vassalage","description":"Mpu Prapanca's Nagarakretagama lists Haru among the nusantara vassals of Majapahit, though the substance of this 'suzerainty' is debated.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.45},{"year":1613,"region":"North Sumatra","change_type":"conquest","description":"Sultan Iskandar Muda of Aceh destroyed Haru in a major campaign, deporting its elite to Aceh proper. The remaining Karo Batak population retreated inland; the coastal polity ceased to exist.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.65}],"sources":[{"citation":"McKinnon, E.E. 'Kota Cina: Its Context in the Trade of Southeast Asia in the Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries', PhD dissertation, Cornell University, 1984","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Miksic, J.N. Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800. Singapore: NUS Press, 2013","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Mpu Prapanca, Nagarakretagama (Deśawarnana), 1365 CE","url":null,"source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"Bonatz, D., Miksic, J. N. & Neidel, J. D. (eds.) (2009). From Distant Tales: Archaeology and Ethnohistory in the Highlands of Sumatra. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1443804974.","url":"https://www.cambridgescholars.com","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Muljana, S. (2005). Runtuhnya kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan timbulnya negara-negara Islam di Nusantara. LKiS Pelangi Aksara. ISBN 978-9798451164.","url":"https://lkis.co.id","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Pires, T. (2005). The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (1512-1515) (ed. A. Cortesão, 2 vols). Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-8120605350.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/title/suma-oriental/oclc/9870937","source_type":"primary"},{"citation":"Munoz, P. M. (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 978-9814155670.","url":"https://www.edmbooks.com","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Reid, A. (2014). A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631179610.","url":"https://www.wiley.com/en-us/A+History+of+Southeast+Asia-p-9780631179610","source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS: The Kingdom of Haru (Aru) controlled the eastern coast of North Sumatra around the Karo Batak highlands. It is attested in Chinese sources (Zhu Fan Zhi 1225 as 'He-lu'), the Nagarakretagama (1365) as a vassal of Majapahit, and the Malay Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai as a rival and intermittent enemy of Pasai. The polity was Karo Batak in ethnic base, progressively Islamicised, and finally destroyed by Aceh under Iskandar Muda in 1613. The Kota Cina archaeological site (9th-14th c. trade emporium) attests to its commercial vitality; Batak identity, often under-represented in a Malay-centric Sumatran historiography, deserves explicit recognition.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier3/haru-fix] Haru (1225-1613) was a Karo Batak kingdom in NE Sumatra (Deli region); rival of Pasai then Aceh; destroyed by Aceh Sultan Iskandar Muda 1613.","continent":"Asia","wikidata_qid":null,"capital_history":[]},{"id":790,"entity_type":"confederation","year_start":1100,"year_end":1700,"name_original":"Hopituh Shi-nu-mu","name_original_lang":"hop","name_variants":[{"name":"Hopi","lang":"en","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Anglicized short form","source":null},{"name":"Moqui","lang":"es","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Spanish/early American name, now considered pejorative","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Oraibi","lat":35.8642,"lon":-110.6231},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[-109.737113933,35.858153484],[-109.756329008,35.717645661],[-109.808660884,35.58287042],[-109.891958274,35.458963706],[-110.002931455,35.350626499],[-110.137290701,35.261953437],[-110.289913694,35.196285577],[-110.455035496,35.156091543],[-110.626455022,35.142880355],[-110.797752311,35.157148358],[-110.962511115,35.198361694],[-111.114541494,35.264974814],[-111.248097047,35.354484568],[-111.358081274,35.46351842],[-111.440237291,35.587954411],[-111.491314741,35.723069509],[-111.509207397,35.863712083],[-111.493054736,36.004493247],[-111.443300846,36.139990872],[-111.361704641,36.264959122],[-111.251296741,36.374535485],[-111.116280546,36.464436705],[-110.961878131,36.531134713],[-110.794125232,36.572003973],[-110.619623607,36.585432589],[-110.445262707,36.570891083],[-110.277925445,36.528954986],[-110.12419441,36.461279964],[-109.990074798,36.370530911],[-109.880748717,36.260269064],[-109.800372594,36.134803301],[-109.751925712,35.999013343],[-109.737113933,35.858153484]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.5,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1540,"region":"Hopi mesas, AZ","change_type":"contact","description":"Pedro de Tovar (Coronado expedition) reaches the Hopi mesas; brief skirmish at Awatovi.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.8},{"year":1629,"region":"Hopi","change_type":"missionization","description":"Franciscans establish missions at Awatovi, Shongopovi and Oraibi over Hopi resistance.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.85},{"year":1680,"region":"Hopi mesas","change_type":"rebellion","description":"Hopi join the Pueblo Revolt: Franciscan missionaries killed and missions destroyed across all Hopi villages.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.95},{"year":1700,"region":"Awatovi","change_type":"destruction","description":"Hopi from Walpi, Mishongnovi and Oraibi destroy the village of Awatovi, which had readmitted Franciscan missionaries; men of the village killed, women and children dispersed to other Hopi villages. Awatovi is permanently abandoned.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.85}],"sources":[{"citation":"Brooks, James F. Mesa of Sorrows: A History of the Awatovi Massacre. W. W. Norton, 2016","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Whiteley, Peter M. Deliberate Acts: Changing Hopi Culture Through the Oraibi Split. University of Arizona Press, 1988","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Brew, John O. \"The History of Awatovi.\" In Franciscan Awatovi: The Excavation and Conjectural Reconstruction of a 17th-Century Spanish Mission Establishment at a Hopi Indian Town in Northeastern Arizona, by Ross Gordon Montgomery, Watson Smith and John O. Brew, 3-43. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum, 1949.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/655145","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Whiteley, Peter M. Deliberate Acts: Changing Hopi Culture through the Oraibi Split. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-8165-1037-5.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780816510375","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"James, Harry C. Pages from Hopi History. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1974. ISBN 978-0-8165-0490-9.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780816504909","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Brugge, David M. The Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute: An American Tragedy. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-8263-1495-3.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780826314956","source_type":"book"},{"citation":"Adams, E. Charles and Kelley Ann Hays, eds. Homol'ovi II: Archaeology of an Ancestral Hopi Village, Arizona. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-8165-1234-8.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9780816512348","source_type":"book"}],"ethical_notes":"Hopituh Shi-nu-mu ('the peaceful little ones') are the people of the Hopi mesas in northeastern Arizona, descendants of the Ancestral Puebloans. Old Oraibi (founded c. 1100 CE) is among the oldest continuously inhabited settlements in North America. The Hopi joined the 1680 Pueblo Revolt and uniquely never re-accepted Spanish missions: in 1700, Hopi from the other mesas destroyed the village of Awatovi, which had readmitted Franciscan missionaries, killing many of its men. Hopi sovereignty is now compromised by the federally imposed Hopi-Navajo land partition (1974 Joint Use Area dispute and 1996 settlement) which forced relocation of thousands of Diné families from contested lands but also constrained Hopi claims. The Hopi Tribe is a federally recognized nation today.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier1A] Default placeholder square replaced with 80km circle. Hopituh Shi-nu-mu is the Hopi confederation of pueblos on Black Mesa, AZ — pre-contact range ~80-100km.","continent":"Americas","wikidata_qid":"Q117255","capital_history":[]},{"id":655,"entity_type":"duchy","year_start":1058,"year_end":1864,"name_original":"Hertugdømmet Slesvig","name_original_lang":"da","name_variants":[{"name":"Duchy of Schleswig","lang":"en","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Standard English designation using the German-derived form","source":null},{"name":"Herzogtum Schleswig","lang":"de","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"German designation, reflecting the duchy's role in German national history","source":null},{"name":"Ducatus Slesvicensis","lang":"la","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"Latin form used in medieval documents","source":null}],"capital":{"name":"Slesvig (Schleswig)","lat":54.52,"lon":9.57},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[8.1,55.42],[10.4,55.3],[10.8,54.85],[10.1,54.4],[8.3,54.65],[8.1,55.42]]]]},"boundary_source":"historical_approximation","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.85,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":1460,"region":"Schleswig-Holstein","change_type":"treaty","description":"The Treaty of Ribe (1460) established that Schleswig and Holstein were to be 'forever undivided' (up ewig ungedeelt) under the Danish king as duke, but also linked to the Holy Roman Empire through Holstein. This ambiguous legal arrangement created the foundation for centuries of Danish-German conflict over sovereignty.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.75},{"year":1864,"region":"Schleswig","change_type":"conquest","description":"Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark in the Second Schleswig War. The Treaty of Vienna (1864) transferred both Schleswig and Holstein from Danish to Austro-Prussian control. This was a formative event in German unification and a national trauma for Denmark, which lost approximately one-third of its territory and population. The 1920 plebiscite partially reversed the outcome, returning northern Schleswig to Denmark.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.9}],"sources":[{"citation":"Scharff, Alexander. Schleswig-Holstein in der deutschen und nordeuropäischen Geschichte. Stuttgart: Klett, 1969","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Bregnsbo, Michael, and Kurt Villads Jensen. The Rise and Fall of the Danish Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Hauschild-Thiessen, R. (ed.) (1991). 800 Jahre Lübisches Recht. Veröffentlichungen aus dem Staatsarchiv der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg. ISBN 978-3923356416.","url":"https://www.hamburg.de/staatsarchiv/","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Brandt, O. (1981). Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins (8th ed.). Wachholtz Verlag. ISBN 978-3529024153.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9783529024153","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Lange, U. (ed.) (2003). Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins: Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (3rd ed.). Wachholtz Verlag. ISBN 978-3529024405.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9783529024405","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Bregnsbo, M. (2014). Det første kongerige: Danmarks historie 800-1340. Gads Forlag. ISBN 978-8712044130.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/isbn/9788712044130","source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Hjelholt, H. (1979). Sønderjyllands historie, fremstillet for det danske folk, 5 vols. Reitzel / Akademisk Forlag.","url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8244290","source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS: The Duchy of Schleswig is one of the most consequential disputed territories in Northern European history, with Danish and German national movements both claiming it as integral to their national territory. The Second Schleswig War (1864) ended Danish sovereignty; the 1920 plebiscite divided it between Denmark (northern) and Germany (southern Schleswig-Holstein). [v6.99.28-manual-boundary] Polygon represents pre-1864 ducal extent from the Eider River north to roughly the modern Danish-German border — based on Bregnsbo (2014), Lange (2003).","continent":"Europe","wikidata_qid":"Q26167","capital_history":[]},{"id":195,"entity_type":"kingdom","year_start":-700,"year_end":1521,"name_original":"Bēnizàa","name_original_lang":"zap","name_variants":[{"name":"Zapotec civilization","lang":"en","period_start":-700,"period_end":1521,"context":"English academic designation","source":"Marcus, J. & Flannery, K.V. Zapotec Civilization (1996)"},{"name":"Cloud People","lang":"en","period_start":null,"period_end":null,"context":"English translation of the endonym Bēnizàa","source":"Whitecotton, J.W. The Zapotecs (1977)"}],"capital":{"name":"Monte Albán","lat":17.0436,"lon":-96.7675},"boundary_geojson":{"type":"MultiPolygon","coordinates":[[[[-96.016558434,17.033958001],[-96.033197349,16.893276872],[-96.077964741,16.758406021],[-96.149095473,16.634503253],[-96.243832257,16.526300286],[-96.358534491,16.43792547],[-96.488817531,16.372749426],[-96.629717341,16.333258967],[-96.775874874,16.320963766],[-96.92173405,16.336339184],[-97.061746741,16.378807438],[-97.190577977,16.446757977],[-97.303304456,16.537606488],[-97.395599586,16.647890596],[-97.463898556,16.773398945],[-97.505537398,16.909329182],[-97.518860603,17.05046927],[-97.503292603,17.19139568],[-97.45936937,17.326681276],[-97.38872754,17.451105136],[-97.294049933,17.559856236],[-97.178968073,17.648722782],[-97.047924338,17.714259273],[-96.90599856,17.753923995],[-96.758706015,17.766180721],[-96.61177565,17.750559946],[-96.470918729,17.707676821],[-96.341598765,17.639205085],[-96.228813427,17.547808421],[-96.136898197,17.437032661],[-96.069359992,17.311163992],[-96.028746945,17.175059595],[-96.016558434,17.033958001]]]]},"boundary_source":"approximate_circle","boundary_aourednik_name":null,"boundary_aourednik_year":null,"boundary_reference_year":null,"boundary_aourednik_precision":null,"boundary_ne_iso_a3":null,"confidence_score":0.62,"status":"confirmed","territory_changes":[{"year":-700,"region":"Oaxaca Valley","change_type":"INDEPENDENCE","description":"Foundation of Monte Albán as a hilltop center, possibly as a defensive confederation of valley communities. Development of writing and calendar systems.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.6},{"year":800,"region":"Monte Albán","change_type":"DISSOLUTION","description":"Decline of Monte Albán as primary center. Zapotec political power disperses to valley floor sites including Zaachila and Mitla. Not a collapse but a political reorganization.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.6},{"year":1521,"region":"Oaxaca","change_type":"CONQUEST_MILITARY","description":"Spanish conquest. Zapotec communities subjected to encomienda forced labor system and forced conversion. Population devastated by epidemic diseases including smallpox.","population_affected":null,"confidence_score":0.8}],"sources":[{"citation":"Marcus, J. & Flannery, K.V. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley (1996), Thames & Hudson","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Whitecotton, J.W. The Zapotecs: Princes, Priests, and Peasants (1977), University of Oklahoma Press","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Flannery, K.V. & Marcus, J. The Cloud People (1983), Academic Press","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Marcus, J. & Flannery, K.V. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames & Hudson (1996)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Flannery, K.V. & Marcus, J. (eds.) The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, Academic Press (1983)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"},{"citation":"Blanton, R.E. et al. Ancient Oaxaca: The Monte Albán State, Cambridge Univ. Press (1999)","url":null,"source_type":"academic"}],"ethical_notes":"ETHICS-001: Bēnizàa means 'Cloud People' in Zapotec, the endonym for this civilization. The Zapotec developed one of the earliest writing systems in Mesoamerica. Monte Albán's 'Danzantes' carvings likely depict tortured/sacrificed captives, not dancers as the colonial-era misnomer implies. ETHICS-002: Spanish colonization imposed the encomienda system on surviving populations. Zapotec peoples and language persist today with approximately 500,000 speakers.\n\n[v6.99.79-tier1A] Default placeholder square replaced with 80km circle. Bēnizàa (Zapotec people) were centered in the Valley of Oaxaca with Monte Albán as capital (500 BCE–800 CE) — three-branch valley extent ~80km.\n\n[S53-enrich] ETHICS-001: 'Bēnizàa' e' l'autonimo zapoteco. Civilta' di Monte Albán (Valle di Oaxaca), tra i primi sistemi di scrittura mesoamericani. Fonti: Marcus & Flannery, The Cloud People (Flannery & Marcus), Blanton.","continent":"Americas","wikidata_qid":null,"capital_history":[]}],"hint":null}